Female Urethral Diverticulae: Difference between revisions

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== Background ==
== Background ==


* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Definition of female urethral diverticulum: a variably sized''' '''urine-filled periurethral cystic structure adjacent to the urethra within the confines of the pelvic fascia, connected to the urethra via an ostium'''
* '''Definition of female urethral diverticulum: a variably sized urine-filled periurethral cystic structure adjacent to the urethra within the confines of the pelvic fascia, connected to the urethra via an ostium'''


== Epidemiology ==
== Epidemiology ==
Line 10: Line 10:
== Classification ==
== Classification ==


* '''Classified: congenital vs. acquired'''
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Classified: congenital vs. acquired'''


* '''Vast majority are acquired and diagnosed in adult females; few are congenital'''
* '''Vast majority are acquired and diagnosed in adult females; few are congenital'''


== Risk factors ==
== Risk factors ==
* '''Acquired'''
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Acquired'''
**'''Most acquired female UD are thought to originate from pathologic processes, usually infection, involving the periurethral [Skene] glands'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Most acquired female UD are thought to originate from pathologic processes, usually infection, involving the periurethral [Skene] glands'''


== Anatomy ==
== Anatomy ==


* Size of diverticulum can be few mm to several cm
* Size of diverticulum can be few mm to several cm
*'''Ostium of UD is located postero/ventrolaterally at the 4 and 8 o’clock positions in the mid- or distal urethra in >90%, corresponding to the location of the periurethral glands'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Ostium of the urethral diverticulum is located postero/ventrolaterally at the 4 and 8 o’clock positions in the mid- or distal urethra in >90%, corresponding to the location of the periurethral glands'''
* The interior surface of the UD may be urothelial, squamous, columnar, or cuboidal epithelium, or mixed. In some cases, the epithelium is absent and the wall of the UD consists of only fibrous tissue.
* The interior surface of the UD may be urothelial, squamous, columnar, or cuboidal epithelium, or mixed. In some cases, the epithelium is absent and the wall of the UD consists of only fibrous tissue.
* 2/3 of resected UD demonstrate inflammatory changes. Most UD demonstrate benign histopathology but premalignant and malignant changes can be seen.
* 2/3 of resected UD demonstrate inflammatory changes. Most UD demonstrate benign histopathology but premalignant and malignant changes can be seen.
** '''Most common malignant pathology in UD is adenocarcinoma'''
** '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Most common malignant histology in urethral diverticulum is adenocarcinoma'''
*** '''Recall, primary histology in females urethral carcinoma is squamous cell carcinoma while in male urethral cancers most common histology is urothelial;''' see Urethral Tumours Chapter Notes)
*** '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Recall, most common malignant histology in females urethral carcinoma is squamous cell carcinoma while in male urethral cancers most common histology is urothelial;''' see [[Urethral Tumours|Urethral Tumours Chapter Notes]])


== Diagnosis and evaluation ==
== Differential Diagnosis ==
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Periurethral Masses Other Than Urethral Diverticula (7):'''
 
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Periurethral Bulking Agents'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Vaginal Leiomyoma'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Skene Gland Abnormalities'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Gartner Duct Abnormalities'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Vaginal Wall Cysts'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urethral Mucosal Prolapse'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urethral Caruncle'''
 
=== Urethral Caruncle ===
* '''An inflammatory lesion of the distal urethra'''
* '''Epidemiology'''
**'''Most commonly diagnosed in postmenopausal women'''
* '''Diagnosis and Evaluation'''
**'''Physical Exam'''
***'''Urethral prolapse is similar in appearance, but is circumferential while caruncles are focal'''
*'''Management'''
**'''Most recommend initial conservative management with topical estrogen or anti-inflammatory creams and sitz baths.'''
**'''Large or refractory lesions may be managed with simple excision.'''
** '''If the lesion is atypical in appearance or behavior, excision may be warranted to exclude other entities.'''


* '''Summary: H+P, U/A +/- culture, imaging, cystourethroscopy, +/- UDS'''
== Diagnosis and Evaluation ==


* '''History and Physical Exam'''
=== UrologySchool.com Summary ===
** '''History'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">History and Physical Exam'''
*** '''Notable for a range of clinical presentations ranging from completely asymptomatic (up to 20% of patients), incidentally noted lesions on physical examination or imaging, to very debilitating, painful vaginal masses associated with incontinence, stones, severe dyspareunia, and/or tumors'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Labs'''
*** '''The most common symptoms are storage LUTS, pain, and infection'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">U/A +/- culture'''
**** '''The classic presentation of UD has been described historically as the “three Ds”—dysuria, dyspareunia, and dribbling (postvoid)—but this presentation is uncommon.'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Imaging'''
**** '''Other complaints include a vaginal mass, hematuria, vaginal discharge, voiding symptoms (post-void dribbling), urinary retention, and incontinence (stress or urge).'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Options (5)'''
**** '''Patients may present with complaints of a tender or nontender anterior vaginal wall mass, which upon gentle compression may reveal retained urine or purulent discharge per the urethral meatus.'''
**#'''Double-balloon positive pressure urethrography'''
**** Vaginal pruritis is not a symptom associated with urethral diverticulum
**#'''VCUG'''
*** '''Multiple bouts of recurrent cystitis should alert the possibility of a UD.'''
**#'''Intravenous urography'''
**** Reinfection, inflammation, and recurrent obstruction of the neck of the cavity are theorized to result in patient symptoms and enlargement of the diverticulum. This expansion occurs most commonly ventrally, resulting in the classic anterior vaginal wall mass palpated on physical examination in some patients with UD. However, it is important to note that these may also expand laterally, or even dorsally, about the urethra. Eventually, the abscess cavity ruptures into the urethral lumen, resulting in the communication between the UD and the urethral lumen.
**#'''US'''
*** '''Size of the UD does not correlate with symptoms'''
**#'''MRI'''
**** '''Size does correlated with risk of recurrence following surgical repair'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Other'''
** '''Physical exam'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Cystourethroscopy'''
*** '''Urethra may be gently “stripped” or “milked” distally in an attempt to express purulent material or urine from within the UD'''
**'''+/- UDS'''
* '''Laboratory'''
** Urinalysis +/- culture
* '''Imaging'''
** '''Options include double-balloon positive pressure urethrography, VCUG, intravenous urography, US, and MRI; no single study can be considered the gold standard'''
** '''Imaging cannot reliably diagnose malignancy in a urethral diverticulum'''
* '''Other'''
** '''Endoscopy'''
*** Patients with UD are often highly symptomatic, and endoscopic examination can be very difficult to initiate or complete without anesthesia.
*** The UD ostium can be very difficult to identify in some patients
*** Stones within the urethral diverticulum may be diagnosed 4-10% of the time


== Differential Diagnosis ==
=== History and Physical Exam ===
 
==== History ====
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Signs and Symptoms'''
**'''Notable for a range of clinical presentations ranging from completely asymptomatic (up to 20% of patients), incidentally noted lesions on physical examination or imaging, to very debilitating, painful vaginal masses associated with incontinence, stones, severe dyspareunia, and/or tumors'''
** '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Most common symptoms (3):'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Storage LUTS'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Pain'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Infection'''
**#*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Multiple bouts of recurrent cystitis should alert the possibility of a urethral diverticulum'''
**#** Reinfection, inflammation, and recurrent obstruction of the neck of the cavity are theorized to result in patient symptoms and enlargement of the diverticulum. This expansion occurs most commonly ventrally, resulting in the classic anterior vaginal wall mass palpated on physical examination in some patients with UD. However, it is important to note that these may also expand laterally, or even dorsally, about the urethra. Eventually, the abscess cavity ruptures into the urethral lumen, resulting in the communication between the UD and the urethral lumen.
** '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Other symptoms (8):'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Dysuria'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Hematuria'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Post-void dribbling'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urinary retention'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Incontinence (stress or urge)'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Dyspareunia'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Vaginal mass'''
**#*'''Patients may present with complaints of a tender or nontender anterior vaginal wall mass, which upon gentle compression may reveal retained urine or purulent discharge per the urethral meatus.'''
**#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Vaginal discharge'''
**Vaginal pruritis is not a symptom associated with urethral diverticulum
** '''Size of the UD does not correlate with symptoms'''
 
==== Physical Exam ====
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Genitals'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urethra may be gently “stripped” or “milked” distally in an attempt to express purulent material or urine from within the urethral diverticulum'''


* '''Periurethral Masses Other Than Urethral Diverticula (7):'''
=== Laboratory ===
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urinalysis +/- culture'''
[[File:TAJU A 1589748 F0005 OC.jpg|alt=Cystoscopy with visualisation of urethral diverticulum ostium.|thumb|Cystoscopy with visualization of urethral diverticulum ostium at the 4 o’clock position just proximal to the mid-urethral sphincter. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6583718/ Source]]]


# '''Periurethral Bulking Agents'''
=== Imaging ===
# '''Vaginal Leiomyoma'''
* '''No single study can be considered the gold standard'''
# '''Skene Gland Abnormalities'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Options (5)'''
# '''Gartner Duct Abnormalities'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Double-balloon positive pressure urethrography'''
# '''Vaginal Wall Cysts'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">VCUG'''
# '''Urethral Mucosal Prolapse'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Intravenous urography'''
# '''Urethral Caruncle'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">US'''
#* An inflammatory lesion of the distal urethra
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">MRI'''
#* '''Most commonly diagnosed in postmenopausal women'''
* '''Imaging cannot reliably diagnose malignancy in a urethral diverticulum'''
#* '''Most recommend initial conservative management with topical estrogen or anti-inflammatory creams and sitz baths. Large or refractory lesions may be managed with simple excision.'''
=== Other ===
#* '''If the lesion is atypical in appearance or behavior, excision may be warranted to exclude other entities.'''
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Cystourethroscopy'''
#* '''Urethral prolapse is similar in appearance, but is circumferential while caruncles are focal'''
**Patients with UD are often highly symptomatic, and endoscopic examination can be very difficult to initiate or complete without anesthesia.
** The UD ostium can be very difficult to identify in some patients
** Stones within the urethral diverticulum may be diagnosed 4-10% of the time


== Management: observation vs. intervention ==
== Management: observation vs. intervention ==


* See CW11 Figure 90-29 for diagnosis and treatment algorithm for female urethral diverticulae
=== Options ===
* '''Observation'''
#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Observation'''
** Very little is known regarding the natural history of untreated UD. For these reasons, and because of the lack of symptoms in selected cases, some patients may not desire surgical therapy.
#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Intervention'''
** '''There are reports of malignancy arising in UD. Therefore,''' '''patients should be counselled on the risk of malignancy with nonoperative management'''
#*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Surgical interventions (5):'''
** Patients electing nonoperative management can be treated with low-dose antibacterial suppressants and digital stripping of the anterior vaginal wall following micturition to prevent postvoid dribbling and reduce the risk of UTI resulting from stasis in the UD.
#*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Excision with reconstruction (most common surgical approach)'''
** Whether long-term surveillance is required in these patients, with periodic physical examinations, radiographic imaging, or endoscopic examination, is unknown.
#*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Marsupialization (transurethral and open)'''
* '''Intervention'''
#*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Endoscopic unroofing'''
** '''Symptomatic patients, including those with dysuria, dyspareunia, refractory bothersome postvoid dribbling, recurrent UTIs, and pelvic pain, may be offered surgical excision.'''
#*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Fulguration'''
** '''The location and competence of the urethral sphincters have important implications when considering surgical repair of UD because of the anatomic overlap of these two entities.'''
#*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Incision and obliteration with oxidized cellulose or polytetrafluoroethylene'''
*** '''Varying degrees of sphincteric compromise may exist prior to intervention because of the location of diverticulum relative to the proximal and distal urinary sphincter mechanisms, or sphincteric compromise may coexist with UD as a result of other factors.'''
 
** '''Options:'''
==== Observation ====
*** '''Excision with reconstruction (most common surgical approach)'''
* Very little is known regarding the natural history of untreated UD. For these reasons, and because of the lack of symptoms in selected cases, some patients may not desire surgical therapy.
*** '''Marsupialization (transurethral and open)'''
* '''There are reports of malignancy arising in UD. Therefore,''' '''patients should be counselled on the risk of malignancy with nonoperative management'''
*** '''Endoscopic unroofing'''
* Patients electing nonoperative management can be treated with low-dose antibacterial suppressants and digital stripping of the anterior vaginal wall following micturition to prevent postvoid dribbling and reduce the risk of UTI resulting from stasis in the UD.
*** '''Fulguration'''
* Whether long-term surveillance is required in these patients, with periodic physical examinations, radiographic imaging, or endoscopic examination, is unknown.
*** '''Incision and obliteration with oxidized cellulose or polytetrafluoroethylene'''
 
** '''Principles of urethral diverticulectomy (8):'''
==== Intervention ====
**# Mobilization of a well-vascularized anterior vaginal wall flap(s)
 
**# '''Preservation of the periurethral fascia'''
===== Indications =====
**# Identification and excision of the neck, or ostium, of the UD
 
**# Removal of entire UD wall or sac (mucosa)
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Symptomatic patients, including those with dysuria, dyspareunia, refractory bothersome postvoid dribbling, recurrent UTIs, and pelvic pain, may be offered surgical excision.'''
**# Watertight urethral closure
 
**# Multilayered, nonoverlapping closure with absorbable suture
===== Options (5): =====
**# Closure of dead space
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Excision (urethral diverticulectomy) with reconstruction (most common surgical approach)'''
**# Preservation or creation of continence
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Marsupialization (transurethral and open)'''
** '''Successful excision of a urethral diverticulum involves removal of the ostium that connects with the urethral lumen. This often results in direct visualization of the urethral catheter within the urethral lumen during surgery.''' The urethral defect is closed primarily with absorbable suture in a watertight fashion following completion of the removal of the sac.
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Endoscopic unroofing'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Fulguration'''
# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Incision and obliteration with oxidized cellulose or polytetrafluoroethylene'''
 
====== Urethral Diverticulectomy ======
 
* '''Principles (8):'''
# Mobilization of a well-vascularized anterior vaginal wall flap(s)
# '''Preservation of the periurethral fascia'''
# Identification and excision of the neck, or ostium, of the UD
# Removal of entire UD wall or sac (mucosa)
# Watertight urethral closure
# Multilayered, nonoverlapping closure with absorbable suture
# Closure of dead space
# Preservation or creation of continence
* '''The location and competence of the urethral sphincters have important implications when considering surgical repair of urethral diverticulectomy because of the anatomic overlap of these two entities.'''
** '''Varying degrees of sphincteric compromise may exist prior to intervention because of the location of diverticulum relative to the proximal and distal urinary sphincter mechanisms, or sphincteric compromise may coexist with UD as a result of other factors.'''
*'''Technique'''
**'''Successful excision of a urethral diverticulum involves removal of the ostium that connects with the urethral lumen. This often results in direct visualization of the urethral catheter within the urethral lumen during surgery.''' The urethral defect is closed primarily with absorbable suture in a watertight fashion following completion of the removal of the sac.
*** Additional procedures such as buccal mucosal urethroplasty, Martius flap, or vaginal flaps are not necessary to close the urethra.
*** Additional procedures such as buccal mucosal urethroplasty, Martius flap, or vaginal flaps are not necessary to close the urethra.
** Detailed steps described in CW11 page 2165-2167
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Synthetic materials (e.g., mid-urethral polypropylene mesh) should not be used in an anti-incontinence procedure synchronously with urethral diverticulum surgery because of the potentially increased risk of urethral erosion and infection'''
** '''Complications'''
* '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Adverse Events'''
**# '''Recurrent UTIs'''
*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Recurrent UTIs'''
**# '''Urinary incontinence'''
*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urinary incontinence'''
**# '''Recurrent UD'''
*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Recurrent urethral diverticulum'''
**# '''Urethrovaginal fistula (uncommon)'''
*# '''<span style="color:#ff0000">Urethrovaginal fistula (uncommon)'''
** Postoperatively, some patients will have persistence or recurrence of their preoperative symptoms.
* '''Size of diverticulum does correlated with risk of recurrence following surgical repair'''
** '''Synthetic materials (e.g., mid-urethral polypropylene mesh) should not be used in an anti-incontinence procedure synchronously with UD surgery because of the potentially increased risk of urethral erosion and infection'''
*Postoperatively, some patients will have persistence or recurrence of their preoperative symptoms.


== Questions ==
== Questions ==
Line 154: Line 213:


* Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA (eds): CAMPBELL-WALSH UROLOGY, ed 11. Philadelphia, Elsevier, 2015, chap 90
* Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA (eds): CAMPBELL-WALSH UROLOGY, ed 11. Philadelphia, Elsevier, 2015, chap 90
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6583718/ Greiman, Alyssa K., Jennifer Rolef, and Eric S. Rovner. "Urethral diverticulum: a systematic review." ''Arab journal of urology'' 17.1 (2019): 49-57.]

Latest revision as of 05:15, 16 March 2024

Background[edit | edit source]

  • Definition of female urethral diverticulum: a variably sized urine-filled periurethral cystic structure adjacent to the urethra within the confines of the pelvic fascia, connected to the urethra via an ostium

Epidemiology[edit | edit source]

  • Prevalence: unknown; reported in up to 1-6% of adult females in some series
  • Majority of patients present between the 3rd-7th decade of life

Classification[edit | edit source]

  • Classified: congenital vs. acquired
  • Vast majority are acquired and diagnosed in adult females; few are congenital

Risk factors[edit | edit source]

  • Acquired
    • Most acquired female UD are thought to originate from pathologic processes, usually infection, involving the periurethral [Skene] glands

Anatomy[edit | edit source]

  • Size of diverticulum can be few mm to several cm
  • Ostium of the urethral diverticulum is located postero/ventrolaterally at the 4 and 8 o’clock positions in the mid- or distal urethra in >90%, corresponding to the location of the periurethral glands
  • The interior surface of the UD may be urothelial, squamous, columnar, or cuboidal epithelium, or mixed. In some cases, the epithelium is absent and the wall of the UD consists of only fibrous tissue.
  • 2/3 of resected UD demonstrate inflammatory changes. Most UD demonstrate benign histopathology but premalignant and malignant changes can be seen.
    • Most common malignant histology in urethral diverticulum is adenocarcinoma
      • Recall, most common malignant histology in females urethral carcinoma is squamous cell carcinoma while in male urethral cancers most common histology is urothelial; see Urethral Tumours Chapter Notes)

Differential Diagnosis[edit | edit source]

  • Periurethral Masses Other Than Urethral Diverticula (7):
  1. Periurethral Bulking Agents
  2. Vaginal Leiomyoma
  3. Skene Gland Abnormalities
  4. Gartner Duct Abnormalities
  5. Vaginal Wall Cysts
  6. Urethral Mucosal Prolapse
  7. Urethral Caruncle

Urethral Caruncle[edit | edit source]

  • An inflammatory lesion of the distal urethra
  • Epidemiology
    • Most commonly diagnosed in postmenopausal women
  • Diagnosis and Evaluation
    • Physical Exam
      • Urethral prolapse is similar in appearance, but is circumferential while caruncles are focal
  • Management
    • Most recommend initial conservative management with topical estrogen or anti-inflammatory creams and sitz baths.
    • Large or refractory lesions may be managed with simple excision.
    • If the lesion is atypical in appearance or behavior, excision may be warranted to exclude other entities.

Diagnosis and Evaluation[edit | edit source]

UrologySchool.com Summary[edit | edit source]

  • History and Physical Exam
  • Labs
    • U/A +/- culture
  • Imaging
    • Options (5)
      1. Double-balloon positive pressure urethrography
      2. VCUG
      3. Intravenous urography
      4. US
      5. MRI
  • Other
    • Cystourethroscopy
    • +/- UDS

History and Physical Exam[edit | edit source]

History[edit | edit source]

  • Signs and Symptoms
    • Notable for a range of clinical presentations ranging from completely asymptomatic (up to 20% of patients), incidentally noted lesions on physical examination or imaging, to very debilitating, painful vaginal masses associated with incontinence, stones, severe dyspareunia, and/or tumors
    • Most common symptoms (3):
      1. Storage LUTS
      2. Pain
      3. Infection
        • Multiple bouts of recurrent cystitis should alert the possibility of a urethral diverticulum
          • Reinfection, inflammation, and recurrent obstruction of the neck of the cavity are theorized to result in patient symptoms and enlargement of the diverticulum. This expansion occurs most commonly ventrally, resulting in the classic anterior vaginal wall mass palpated on physical examination in some patients with UD. However, it is important to note that these may also expand laterally, or even dorsally, about the urethra. Eventually, the abscess cavity ruptures into the urethral lumen, resulting in the communication between the UD and the urethral lumen.
    • Other symptoms (8):
      1. Dysuria
      2. Hematuria
      3. Post-void dribbling
      4. Urinary retention
      5. Incontinence (stress or urge)
      6. Dyspareunia
      7. Vaginal mass
        • Patients may present with complaints of a tender or nontender anterior vaginal wall mass, which upon gentle compression may reveal retained urine or purulent discharge per the urethral meatus.
      8. Vaginal discharge
    • Vaginal pruritis is not a symptom associated with urethral diverticulum
    • Size of the UD does not correlate with symptoms

Physical Exam[edit | edit source]

  • Genitals
    • Urethra may be gently “stripped” or “milked” distally in an attempt to express purulent material or urine from within the urethral diverticulum

Laboratory[edit | edit source]

  • Urinalysis +/- culture
Cystoscopy with visualisation of urethral diverticulum ostium.
Cystoscopy with visualization of urethral diverticulum ostium at the 4 o’clock position just proximal to the mid-urethral sphincter. Source

Imaging[edit | edit source]

  • No single study can be considered the gold standard
  • Options (5)
    1. Double-balloon positive pressure urethrography
    2. VCUG
    3. Intravenous urography
    4. US
    5. MRI
  • Imaging cannot reliably diagnose malignancy in a urethral diverticulum

Other[edit | edit source]

  • Cystourethroscopy
    • Patients with UD are often highly symptomatic, and endoscopic examination can be very difficult to initiate or complete without anesthesia.
    • The UD ostium can be very difficult to identify in some patients
    • Stones within the urethral diverticulum may be diagnosed 4-10% of the time

Management: observation vs. intervention[edit | edit source]

Options[edit | edit source]

  1. Observation
  2. Intervention
    • Surgical interventions (5):
      1. Excision with reconstruction (most common surgical approach)
      2. Marsupialization (transurethral and open)
      3. Endoscopic unroofing
      4. Fulguration
      5. Incision and obliteration with oxidized cellulose or polytetrafluoroethylene

Observation[edit | edit source]

  • Very little is known regarding the natural history of untreated UD. For these reasons, and because of the lack of symptoms in selected cases, some patients may not desire surgical therapy.
  • There are reports of malignancy arising in UD. Therefore, patients should be counselled on the risk of malignancy with nonoperative management
  • Patients electing nonoperative management can be treated with low-dose antibacterial suppressants and digital stripping of the anterior vaginal wall following micturition to prevent postvoid dribbling and reduce the risk of UTI resulting from stasis in the UD.
  • Whether long-term surveillance is required in these patients, with periodic physical examinations, radiographic imaging, or endoscopic examination, is unknown.

Intervention[edit | edit source]

Indications[edit | edit source]
  • Symptomatic patients, including those with dysuria, dyspareunia, refractory bothersome postvoid dribbling, recurrent UTIs, and pelvic pain, may be offered surgical excision.
Options (5):[edit | edit source]
  1. Excision (urethral diverticulectomy) with reconstruction (most common surgical approach)
  2. Marsupialization (transurethral and open)
  3. Endoscopic unroofing
  4. Fulguration
  5. Incision and obliteration with oxidized cellulose or polytetrafluoroethylene
Urethral Diverticulectomy[edit | edit source]
  • Principles (8):
  1. Mobilization of a well-vascularized anterior vaginal wall flap(s)
  2. Preservation of the periurethral fascia
  3. Identification and excision of the neck, or ostium, of the UD
  4. Removal of entire UD wall or sac (mucosa)
  5. Watertight urethral closure
  6. Multilayered, nonoverlapping closure with absorbable suture
  7. Closure of dead space
  8. Preservation or creation of continence
  • The location and competence of the urethral sphincters have important implications when considering surgical repair of urethral diverticulectomy because of the anatomic overlap of these two entities.
    • Varying degrees of sphincteric compromise may exist prior to intervention because of the location of diverticulum relative to the proximal and distal urinary sphincter mechanisms, or sphincteric compromise may coexist with UD as a result of other factors.
  • Technique
    • Successful excision of a urethral diverticulum involves removal of the ostium that connects with the urethral lumen. This often results in direct visualization of the urethral catheter within the urethral lumen during surgery. The urethral defect is closed primarily with absorbable suture in a watertight fashion following completion of the removal of the sac.
      • Additional procedures such as buccal mucosal urethroplasty, Martius flap, or vaginal flaps are not necessary to close the urethra.
    • Synthetic materials (e.g., mid-urethral polypropylene mesh) should not be used in an anti-incontinence procedure synchronously with urethral diverticulum surgery because of the potentially increased risk of urethral erosion and infection
  • Adverse Events
    1. Recurrent UTIs
    2. Urinary incontinence
    3. Recurrent urethral diverticulum
    4. Urethrovaginal fistula (uncommon)
  • Size of diverticulum does correlated with risk of recurrence following surgical repair
  • Postoperatively, some patients will have persistence or recurrence of their preoperative symptoms.

Questions[edit | edit source]

  1. How do female urethral diverticuli usually develop?
  2. Where is the ostium of most female urethral diverticuli located?
  3. What is the most common histology of malignancy in a female urethral diverticulum? Female urethral cancer? Male urethral cancer?
  4. List signs and symptoms associated with a female urethral diverticulum?
  5. What is the lymphatic drainage of the female urethra?
  6. What is the lymphatic drainage of the male urethra?
  7. Differential diagnosis of periurethral mass?
  8. What is the most common surgical approach to treat a female urethral diverticulum?

Answers[edit | edit source]

  1. How do female urethral diverticuli usually develop?
    • Infection involving the periurethral glands
  2. Where is the ostium of most female urethral diverticuli located?
    • Posterolaterally in the mid- or distal urethra
  3. What is the most common histology of malignancy in a female urethral diverticulum? Female urethral cancer? Male urethral cancer?
    • Female urethral diverticulum: adenocarcinoma
    • Female urethral cancer: squamous
    • Male urethral cancer: urothelial
  4. List signs and symptoms associated with a female urethral diverticulum?
    • Storage LUTS, pain, infection, dysuria, dyspareunia, dribbling, vaginal mass, hematuria, vaginal discharge, voiding symptoms, retention,
  5. What is the lymphatic drainage of the female urethra?
    • Proximal: external iliac nodes
    • Distal: superficial inguinal nodes
  6. What is the lymphatic drainage of the male urethra?
    • Posterior: pelvic nodes
    • Anterior: superficial inguinal lymph nodes
  7. Differential diagnosis of periurethral mass?
    1. Vaginal Leiomyoma
    2. Skene Gland Abnormalities
    3. Gartner Duct Abnormalities
    4. Vaginal Wall Cysts
    5. Urethral Mucosal Prolapse
    6. Urethral Caruncle
    7. Periurethral Bulking Agents
  8. What is the most common surgical approach to treat a female urethral diverticulum?
    • Excision and reconstruction

References[edit | edit source]

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