Prostate: Transrectal Ultrasound: Difference between revisions

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== General urological uses of a transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) ==
== Uses of Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS) in Urology ==


*  '''Uses: (5):'''
*  '''Uses: (5):'''
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#'''Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds'''
#'''Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds'''
==Grayscale TRUS==
==Grayscale TRUS==
*'''Probe frequency'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Probe frequency</span>'''
**'''Increasing the frequency increases the resolution''' and decreases the depth of penetration
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Increasing the frequency decreases the depth of penetration and increases the resolution</span>'''
**'''Decreasing the frequency increases the depth of penetration''' and decreases the resolution
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Decreasing the frequency increases the depth of penetration and decreases the resolution</span>'''
**'''The commonly used 7-MHz transducer''' produces a high-resolution image with a focal range from 1-4 cm from the transducer '''(best for peripheral zone where most cancers arise)'''
**'''The commonly used 7-MHz transducer''' produces a high-resolution image with a focal range from 1-4 cm from the transducer '''(best for peripheral zone where most cancers arise)'''
**Lower frequency transducers (e.g., older 4-MHz transducers) have a focal range from 2-8 cm but at lower resolution
**Lower frequency transducers (e.g., older 4-MHz transducers) have a focal range from 2-8 cm but at lower resolution
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">On axial/transverse view, the right side of the prostate is on the left part of the screen, while the left side of the prostate is on the right side of the screen, similar to CT scan</span>'''
==TRUS Anatomy of the Prostate==
==TRUS Anatomy of the Prostate==
*Traditionally described based on a pathologic zonal architecture:
*Traditionally described based on a pathologic zonal architecture:
Line 18: Line 20:
**Transition zone (TZ)
**Transition zone (TZ)
**Central zone (CZ)
**Central zone (CZ)
**Peripheral zone (PZ)
**Periurethral zone
**Periurethral zone
**Peripheral zone (PZ)
**'''CZ and PZ cannot be distinguished from each other on US''', and are often collectively referred to as the PZ on TRUS
**'''The TZ is generally hyperechoic compared to the CZ and PZ'''
**See [https://radiologykey.com/transrectal-ultrasound-of-the-prostate/#Fig6 Figure 1] and [https://i0.wp.com/abdominalkey.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/f073-001ab-9780128016480.jpg Figure 2]
**See [https://radiologykey.com/transrectal-ultrasound-of-the-prostate/#Fig6 Figure 1] and [https://i0.wp.com/abdominalkey.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/f073-001ab-9780128016480.jpg Figure 2]
**See [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HF43Ylc3qmM video] on GU Sonography of the Urinary Bladder, Scrotum & Prostate
**See [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HF43Ylc3qmM video] on GU Sonography of the Urinary Bladder, Scrotum & Prostate
*'''Calcifications along the surgical capsule, known as the corpora amylacea, highlight the plane between the PZ and TZ (multiple diffuse calcifications are a normal,''' often incidental finding and represents a result of age rather than a pathologic entity)
*'''Peripheral zone and central zone cannot be distinguished from each other on TRUS, and are often collectively referred to as the "peripheral zone" on TRUS'''
*On axial/transverse view, the right side of the prostate is on the left part of the screen, while the left side of the prostate is on the right side of the screen, similar to CT scan[[
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Peripheral zone is used as the reference for isoechoic</span>'''
*See [https://i0.wp.com/abdominalkey.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/f073-001ab-9780128016480.jpg Figure]
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Transition zone is generally hyperechoic (brighter) compared to the peripheral zone and central zone</span>'''
*'''Calcifications along the surgical capsule, known as the corpora amylacea, highlight the plane between the peripheral zone and transition zone'''
**'''Multiple diffuse calcifications are a normal,''' often incidental finding and represents a result of age rather than a pathologic entity


== Prostate lesions on TRUS ==
== Prostate lesions on TRUS ==
*'''Peripheral zone is used as the reference for isoechoic when describing lesions'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Appearance of prostate cancer on TRUS:[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2659828 §]'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Appearance of prostate cancer on TRUS:[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2659828 §]'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Hypoechoic (60%)'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Hypoechoic (darker): 60%'''
***See [http://www.aboutcancer.com/trus_in_prostate_cancer.htm Figure]
***See [http://www.aboutcancer.com/trus_in_prostate_cancer.htm Figure]
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Isoechoic (39%)'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Isoechoic: 39%'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Hyperechoic (1%)'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Hyperechoic: 1%'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Differential diagnosis of hypoechoic lesion on TRUS (6):</span>'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Differential diagnosis of hypoechoic (dark) lesion on TRUS (6):</span>'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Prostate cancer</span>'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Prostate cancer</span>'''
*##'''A hypoechoic lesion contains cancer ≈20% of the time.'''
*#*'''A hypoechoic lesion on TRUS contains cancer ≈20% of the time.'''
*##*While there is a need to biopsy hypoechoic lesions, these lesions are not pathognomonic for cancer and do not correlate with the aggressiveness of the disease as measured by Gleason score.
*#**While there is a need to biopsy hypoechoic lesions, these lesions are not pathognomonic for cancer and do not correlate with the aggressiveness of the disease as measured by Gleason score.
*#*The hypoechoic appearance of cancer in the prostate gland is due to the destruction of normal glandular tissue by the cancer cells. This produces less acoustic interfaces to reflect the ultrasound waves and a hypoechoic appearance.[https://www.baus.org.uk/_userfiles/pages/files/Publications/Transrectal%20Ultrasound%20%20Prostatic%20Biopsy%20FINAL.pdf]
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Granulomatous prostatitis</span>'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Granulomatous prostatitis</span>'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Prostatic infarct</span>'''
*#'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Prostatic infarct</span>'''
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*##
*##
*'''Many cancers, including hematologic malignancies of the prostate, are isoechoic'''
*'''Many cancers, including hematologic malignancies of the prostate, are isoechoic'''
*'''Prostatic cysts'''
 
**'''May be congenital or acquired but are rarely clinically significant, regardless of cause'''
== TRUS appearance after treatment ==
**'''Congenital prostatic cystic lesions may arise from either müllerian (prostatic utricles and müllerian duct cysts) or wolffian (ejaculatory duct and SV cysts) structures'''
 
***'''Enlarged prostatic utricle'''
=== Change in prostate volume ===
****A diverticular projection from the posterior urethra at the level of the verumontanum
 
****'''Appears as a midline anechoic structure'''
*External-beam radiation monotherapy therapy  
****'''Associated with genital anomalies''', including hypospadias (most common), ambiguous genitalia, undescended testes, and congenital urethral polyps
**Usually results in decreased volume by 6 months after treatment.
***'''Müllerian duct cysts'''
*Brachytherapy
****Result from failure of the müllerian ducts to fuse with the urethra.
**Volume declines significantly after treatment
****'''Appears as a midline anechoic structure;''' generally ovoid to pear shaped, with the cyst neck oriented toward the verumontanum.
***37% size reduction at 1 year after treatment
****'''Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis'''
***> 50% size reduction at 8 years after after treatment
***'''SV cysts'''
*5-ARIs
****'''Can be caused by congenital or acquired obstruction of the ejaculatory duct'''
****'''Associated with cystic renal disease'''
****'''Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis'''
****'''Zinner syndrome (3):'''
****#'''Ipsilateral SV cyst'''
****#'''Ejaculatory duct obstruction'''
****#'''Unilateral renal agenesis'''
*'''TRUS appearance after treatment'''
**External-beam radiation monotherapy therapy usually results in decreased volume by 6 months after treatment.
**With brachytherapy, prostate volume declines significantly after treatment, with a 37% size reduction at 1 year after treatment and > 50% reduction 8 years after implantation
**'''Irradiated prostates are diffusely hypoechoic'''
**Androgen ablation with luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone analogues will cause ≈30% volume decrease with androgen deprivation in prostates with and without cancer
**'''Volume decreases by ≈21% at 6 months with 5-ARIs'''
**'''Volume decreases by ≈21% at 6 months with 5-ARIs'''
==<span style="color:#ff0000">Estimating Prostate Volume</span>==
*Androgen ablation with luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone analogues
*'''Most formulas assume that the gland conforms to an ideal geometric shape: either an <span style="color:#ff0000">ellipse (π/6 × transverse diameter × AP diameter × longitudinal diameter)</span>,''' sphere (π/6 × transverse diameter3), or a prolate (eggshaped) spheroid (π/6 × transverse diameter2 × AP diameter).
**≈30% volume decrease with androgen deprivation in prostates with and without cancer
**'''All formulas reliably estimate gland volume and weight, with correlation coefficients > 0.90 with radical prostatectomy specimen weights,''' because 1 cm3 = approximately 1 g of prostate tissue.
 
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Planimetry is the most accurate means of volume measurement by US</span>'''
=== Change in prostate appearance ===
***Planimetry allows for variation in shape as the area is calculated in consecutive ultrasonographic cross-sections. The area is multiplied with the distance between the cross-sections and the total volume is determined by summation of all contributions.[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7488974/]
 
*'''Irradiated prostates are diffusely hypoechoic'''
 
== Prostatic cysts ==
*'''Rarely clinically significant, regardless of cause'''
*Appear anechoic[https://www.baus.org.uk/_userfiles/pages/files/Publications/Transrectal%20Ultrasound%20%20Prostatic%20Biopsy%20FINAL.pdf]
 
*'''Classification: congenital vs. acquired'''
 
=== Congenital prostatic cystic lesions ===
*'''May arise from either (2):'''
*#'''Müllerian (prostatic utricles and müllerian duct cysts) OR'''
*#'''Wolffian (ejaculatory duct and SV cysts) structures'''
 
==== Enlarged prostatic utricle ====
*A diverticular projection from the posterior urethra at the level of the verumontanum
*'''Appears as a midline anechoic structure'''
*'''Associated with genital anomalies''', including (4):
*#Hypospadias (most common)
*#Ambiguous genitalia
*#Undescended testes
*#Congenital urethral polyps
 
==== Müllerian duct cysts ====
*Result from failure of the müllerian ducts to fuse with the urethra.
*'''Appears as a midline anechoic structure;''' generally ovoid to pear shaped, with the cyst neck oriented toward the verumontanum.
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis</span>'''
 
==== SV cysts ====
*'''Can be caused by congenital or acquired obstruction of the ejaculatory duct'''
*'''Associated with cystic renal disease'''
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis</span>'''
*'''Findings associated with Zinner syndrome (3):'''
*#'''Ipsilateral SV cyst'''
*#'''Ejaculatory duct obstruction'''
*#'''Unilateral renal agenesis'''
 
==Estimating Prostate Volume==
*'''Most formulas assume that the gland conforms to an ideal geometric shape, either an'''
**'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Ellipse (π/6 × transverse diameter × AP diameter × longitudinal diameter)</span>'''  
**Sphere (π/6 × transverse diameter3)
**Prolate (eggshaped) spheroid (π/6 × transverse diameter2 × AP diameter).
***'''All formulas reliably estimate gland volume and weight, with correlation coefficients > 0.90 with radical prostatectomy specimen weights,''' because 1 cm3 = approximately 1 g of prostate tissue.
*'''<span style="color:#ff0000">Planimetry is the most accurate means of volume measurement by US</span>'''
**Planimetry allows for variation in shape as the area is calculated in consecutive ultrasonographic cross-sections. The area is multiplied with the distance between the cross-sections and the total volume is determined by summation of all contributions.[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7488974/]
 
==Questions==
==Questions==
#List uses of a TRUS
#List uses of a TRUS
#What proportion of prostate cancers are hypo vs. iso. vs. hyperechoic on TRUS?
#What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?
#What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?
==Answers==
==Answers==
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##Guide prostate biopsies
##Guide prostate biopsies
##Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds
##Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds
#What proportion of prostate cancers are hypo vs. iso. vs. hyperechoic on TRUS?
##Hypoechoic: 60%
##Isoechoic: 39%
##Hyperechoic: 1%
#What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?
#What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?
##Prostate cancer
##Granulomatous prostatitis
##Granulomatous prostatitis
##Prostatic infarct
##Prostatic infarct

Latest revision as of 16:21, 25 June 2023

Uses of Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS) in Urology[edit | edit source]

  • Uses: (5):
  1. Assess prostate volume
  2. Locate focal prostate abnormalities
  3. Assess for obstructive cause of infertility (dilated seminal vesicles secondary to ejaculatory duct obstruction)
  4. Guide prostate biopsies
  5. Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds

Grayscale TRUS[edit | edit source]

  • Probe frequency
    • Increasing the frequency decreases the depth of penetration and increases the resolution
    • Decreasing the frequency increases the depth of penetration and decreases the resolution
    • The commonly used 7-MHz transducer produces a high-resolution image with a focal range from 1-4 cm from the transducer (best for peripheral zone where most cancers arise)
    • Lower frequency transducers (e.g., older 4-MHz transducers) have a focal range from 2-8 cm but at lower resolution
  • On axial/transverse view, the right side of the prostate is on the left part of the screen, while the left side of the prostate is on the right side of the screen, similar to CT scan

TRUS Anatomy of the Prostate[edit | edit source]

  • Traditionally described based on a pathologic zonal architecture:
    • Anterior fibromuscular stroma (FS), which is devoid of glandular tissue
    • Transition zone (TZ)
    • Central zone (CZ)
    • Peripheral zone (PZ)
    • Periurethral zone
    • See Figure 1 and Figure 2
    • See video on GU Sonography of the Urinary Bladder, Scrotum & Prostate
  • Peripheral zone and central zone cannot be distinguished from each other on TRUS, and are often collectively referred to as the "peripheral zone" on TRUS
  • Peripheral zone is used as the reference for isoechoic
    • Transition zone is generally hyperechoic (brighter) compared to the peripheral zone and central zone
  • Calcifications along the surgical capsule, known as the corpora amylacea, highlight the plane between the peripheral zone and transition zone
    • Multiple diffuse calcifications are a normal, often incidental finding and represents a result of age rather than a pathologic entity

Prostate lesions on TRUS[edit | edit source]

  • Appearance of prostate cancer on TRUS:§
    • Hypoechoic (darker): 60%
    • Isoechoic: 39%
    • Hyperechoic: 1%
  • Differential diagnosis of hypoechoic (dark) lesion on TRUS (6):
    1. Prostate cancer
      • A hypoechoic lesion on TRUS contains cancer ≈20% of the time.
        • While there is a need to biopsy hypoechoic lesions, these lesions are not pathognomonic for cancer and do not correlate with the aggressiveness of the disease as measured by Gleason score.
      • The hypoechoic appearance of cancer in the prostate gland is due to the destruction of normal glandular tissue by the cancer cells. This produces less acoustic interfaces to reflect the ultrasound waves and a hypoechoic appearance.[1]
    2. Granulomatous prostatitis
    3. Prostatic infarct
    4. Lymphoma
    5. BPH nodules
    6. Normal urethra
  • Many cancers, including hematologic malignancies of the prostate, are isoechoic

TRUS appearance after treatment[edit | edit source]

Change in prostate volume[edit | edit source]

  • External-beam radiation monotherapy therapy
    • Usually results in decreased volume by 6 months after treatment.
  • Brachytherapy
    • Volume declines significantly after treatment
      • 37% size reduction at 1 year after treatment
      • > 50% size reduction at 8 years after after treatment
  • 5-ARIs
    • Volume decreases by ≈21% at 6 months with 5-ARIs
  • Androgen ablation with luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone analogues
    • ≈30% volume decrease with androgen deprivation in prostates with and without cancer

Change in prostate appearance[edit | edit source]

  • Irradiated prostates are diffusely hypoechoic

Prostatic cysts[edit | edit source]

  • Rarely clinically significant, regardless of cause
  • Appear anechoic[2]
  • Classification: congenital vs. acquired

Congenital prostatic cystic lesions[edit | edit source]

  • May arise from either (2):
    1. Müllerian (prostatic utricles and müllerian duct cysts) OR
    2. Wolffian (ejaculatory duct and SV cysts) structures

Enlarged prostatic utricle[edit | edit source]

  • A diverticular projection from the posterior urethra at the level of the verumontanum
  • Appears as a midline anechoic structure
  • Associated with genital anomalies, including (4):
    1. Hypospadias (most common)
    2. Ambiguous genitalia
    3. Undescended testes
    4. Congenital urethral polyps

Müllerian duct cysts[edit | edit source]

  • Result from failure of the müllerian ducts to fuse with the urethra.
  • Appears as a midline anechoic structure; generally ovoid to pear shaped, with the cyst neck oriented toward the verumontanum.
  • Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis

SV cysts[edit | edit source]

  • Can be caused by congenital or acquired obstruction of the ejaculatory duct
  • Associated with cystic renal disease
  • Should prompt renal US to assess for unilateral renal agenesis
  • Findings associated with Zinner syndrome (3):
    1. Ipsilateral SV cyst
    2. Ejaculatory duct obstruction
    3. Unilateral renal agenesis

Estimating Prostate Volume[edit | edit source]

  • Most formulas assume that the gland conforms to an ideal geometric shape, either an
    • Ellipse (π/6 × transverse diameter × AP diameter × longitudinal diameter)
    • Sphere (π/6 × transverse diameter3)
    • Prolate (eggshaped) spheroid (π/6 × transverse diameter2 × AP diameter).
      • All formulas reliably estimate gland volume and weight, with correlation coefficients > 0.90 with radical prostatectomy specimen weights, because 1 cm3 = approximately 1 g of prostate tissue.
  • Planimetry is the most accurate means of volume measurement by US
    • Planimetry allows for variation in shape as the area is calculated in consecutive ultrasonographic cross-sections. The area is multiplied with the distance between the cross-sections and the total volume is determined by summation of all contributions.[3]

Questions[edit | edit source]

  1. List uses of a TRUS
  2. What proportion of prostate cancers are hypo vs. iso. vs. hyperechoic on TRUS?
  3. What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?

Answers[edit | edit source]

  1. List uses of a TRUS
    1. Estimate prostate volume
    2. Locate focal prostate abnormalities
    3. Assess for obstructive cause of infertility
    4. Guide prostate biopsies
    5. Guide placement of brachytherapy seeds
  2. What proportion of prostate cancers are hypo vs. iso. vs. hyperechoic on TRUS?
    1. Hypoechoic: 60%
    2. Isoechoic: 39%
    3. Hyperechoic: 1%
  3. What is the differential diagnosis of a hypoechoic lesion on TRUS?
    1. Prostate cancer
    2. Granulomatous prostatitis
    3. Prostatic infarct
    4. Lymphoma
    5. BPH nodules
    6. Normal urethra

Next Chapter: Prostate Biopsy[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  • Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA (eds): CAMPBELL-WALSH UROLOGY, ed 11. Philadelphia, Elsevier, 2015, chap 109