Penile Cancer: Squamous Penile Cancer

Benign Tumours

Pearly penile papules

• Also known as papillomas
• Normal and generally found on the glans penis or corona
• Insert figure

Zoon balanitis

• Also called plasma cell balanitis and balanitis plasmacellularis

• Occurs in uncircumcised men from the 3rd decade onward
• Appearance: smooth, moist, erythematous, well-circumscribed plaques on the glans penis; shallow erosions are often present and lesions can be quite large (up to 2cm); difficult to distinguish from carcinoma in situ
  • See Figure
• Pathology:
  • Angiofibromas, similar to the lesions seen on the face in tuberous sclerosis
  • Plasma cell infiltrate
• Diagnosis and evaluation: biopsy
  • Malignancy and extra-mammary Paget’s disease must be excluded
• Management
  • Circumcision
    • Curative in the majority of cases
    • Prevents against development of the disease
    • For patients wanting to avoid circumcision, topical corticosteroids may provide symptomatic relief; topical calcineurin inhibitors (tacrolimus or pimecrolimus) and laser therapy may also play a role

Premalignant cutaneous lesions

• Classified as HPV-related vs. non-HPV related§
  • HPV related (3): bowenoid papulosis, verrucous carcinoma, CIS
    1. Bowenoid papulosis
       • Appearance: multiple reddish-brown verrucous papules on the penile skin; occurs on the shaft of young men in most cases
         • See Figure
       • Histologically similar to low-grade carcinoma in situ [Bowen’s disease]
       • HPV 16 has been suspected as a cause
       • Progression rate to invasive cancer: 1%
       • Diagnosis: biopsy (gold standard)
       • Management: options include excision, electrocautery, cryotherapy, laser, or 5-fluorouracil topical therapy
    2. Verrucous carcinoma (also known as classic Buschke-Löwenstein Tumor and giant condyloma)
       • DNA from HPV types 6 and 11 has been identified in these tumors
       • Progression rate to invasive cancer: 30%
         • Exhibits progressive local growth but does not metastasize
         • Results in invasion and destruction of adjacent tissues by compression
           • Buschke-Löwenstein tumor differs from condyloma acuminatum in that condylomata, regardless of size, always remain superficial and never invade adjacent tissue.
       • Management: often requires surgical excision for definitive treatment; radiation is ineffective
       • INSERT FIGURE
    3. CIS
       • Erythroplasia of Queyrat
         • CIS of the glans or foreskin/span>
         • Progression rate to invasive cancer: 30%
       • Bowen’s disease
         • CIS the penile shaft or the remainder of the genitalia or perineal region/span>
         • Progression rate to invasive cancer: 5%
         • See Figure
       • Metastasis extremely rare
       • Not associated with visceral malignancies
  • Non-HPV related (5):
    1. Penile Kaposi sarcoma
       • Often associated with herpes-virus 8
       • Should prompt an investigation into whether patient is also infected with HIV or otherwise immunosuppressed
       • Appears as a raised, painful, bleeding papule or ulcer with bluish discolouration
         • See Figure
       • Categories of Kaposi sarcoma (4):
         1. Classic: occurs in patients without known immunodeficiency and typically has an indolent course
         2. Immunosuppressive treatment-related: occurs in patients undergoing immunosuppression for organ transplantation or other reasons
         3. African Kaposi sarcoma: occurs in young men and can be indolent or aggressive
         4. Epidemic or HIV-related: occurs in patients with AIDS
         • The classic and immunosuppressive forms of the disease are considered non-epidemic
           • Non-epidemic Kaposi sarcoma limited to penile involvement should be aggressively treated because it is rarely associated with diffuse organ involvement
       • Management
         • The first step in treatment of Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with HIV is to initiate HAART or to optimize the HAART regimen, which generally results in remission of Kaposi's sarcoma.
         • Local treatment can include laser therapy, cryotherapy, surgical excision, application of topical retinoids.
         • Disseminated or visceral Kaposi's sarcoma is treated with combination chemotherapy.
    2. Penile cutaneous horn
       • Rare
       • Usually develops over a pre-existing skin lesion (wart, nevus, traumatic abrasion, or malignant neoplasm)
       • Characterized by overgrowth and cornification of the epithelium, which forms a solid protuberance
         • See Figure
       • May recur and may demonstrate malignant change on subsequent biopsy, even when initial histological appearance is benign. As a result, careful histological evaluation of the base and close follow-up of the excision site are essential
    3. Leucoplakia
    4. Lichen sclerosis (see Penis and Urethra Surgery Chapter Notes)
    5. Pseudoepitheliomatous micaceous and keratotic balanitis

Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis

• Accounts for > 95% of penile malignancies

Epidemiology

• Invasive Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis
  • Abrupt increase of incidence in the 6th decade of life

Risk factors

1. Lack of circumcision
   • Neonatal circumcision
     • Almost eliminates risk of invasive penile cancer
       • The controversial discussion about neonatal circumcision should take into account that circumcision removes approximately half the tissue that can develop into penile cancer
     • Does not demonstrate the same level of protection for CIS
   • Adult circumcision
     • Offers little to no protection
2. HPV (subtype 16 most frequently; oncologic subtypes: 16 and 18, non-oncologic subtypes: 6 and 11)
3. Phimosis
4. Lichen sclerosus, chronic penile inflammation
5. Tobacco exposure (smoking, chewing tobacco)
6. Poor hygiene, rural areas, low socioeconomic status, unmarried
7. Number of sexual partners, early age of sexual intercourse
8. Penile trauma
9. Sporalene and ultraviolet A phototherapy (PUVA) for various dermatological conditions such as psoriasis
   • PUVA is a combination treatment which consists of Psoralens (P) and then exposing the skin to UVA (long wave ultraviolet radiation)

TNM Staging AJCC 8th edition

Primary tumour (T)

• TX: Primary tumour cannot be assessed
• T0: No evidence of primary tumour
• Tis: Carcinoma in situ
• Ta: non-invasive squamous cell carcinoma types including basaloid, warty, verrucous, papillary, and mixed types
• T1: invades subepithelial connective tissue
  • T1a: WITHOUT lymphovascular invasion, perineural invasion, and is not high grade (i.e. grade 3-4 or sarcomatoid)
  • T1b: WITH lymphovascular invasion, perineural invasion, or high grade (i.e. grade 3-4 or sarcomatoid)
• T2: invades corpora spongiosum
• T3: invades corpus cavernosum
• T4: invades other adjacent structures

Lymph nodes (N)

• Clinical
  • cNX: Regional nodes cannot be assessed
  • cN0: No palpable or visibly enlarged inguinal lymph nodes
  • cN1: unilateral, solitary, mobile inguinal lymph node
  • cN2: ≥2 unilateral, mobile inguinal lymph nodes or bilateral inguinal lymph nodes
  • cN3: fixed nodal mass, regardless of the size or unilateral/bilateral involvement
• Pathological
  • pNX: Regional nodes cannot be assessed
  • pN0: No regional lymph node metastasis
  • pN1: up to 2 unilateral positive inguinal lymph nodes
  • pN2: ≥3 unilateral lymph nodes or bilateral inguinal lymph nodes
  • pN3: extra-nodal extension or pelvic lymph node(s)
    • A lymph node > 4 cm is often associated with extranodal extension of cancer.

Distant metastasis (M)

• M0: No distant metastasis (no pathologic M0; use clinical M to complete staging group)
• M1: Distant metastasis: lymph node metastasis outside the true pelvis, or to visceral or bone sites

Natural history

• Tumour architecture
  • Flat tumours are associated with earlier nodal metastasis and worse survival than papillary tumours
• Earliest route of dissemination is metastasis to the regional inguinal and pelvic nodes
  • Superficial lymphatic system
    • Drains the foreskin and skin of the penile shaft
    • Empties into the right and left superficial inguinal nodes
  • Deep lymphatic system
    • Drains the glans penis
    • Empties into the superficial inguinal nodes and the deep inguinal nodes of the femoral triangle
  • Penile cancer can metastasize to contralateral inguinal nodes because of crossover in the symphyseal region
  • Drainage subsequently proceeds from the inguinal nodes to the ipsilateral pelvic lymph nodes (external iliac, internal iliac, and obturator)
  • Metastatic enlargement of the regional nodes eventually leads to skin necrosis, chronic infection, and death from sepsis, or hemorrhage secondary to erosion into the femoral vessels

• Distant Metastasis
  • Most common sites (3):
    1. Lung
    2. Bone
    3. Liver
  • Clinically detectable distant metastatic lesions to the lung, liver, bone, or brain are uncommon
  • Usually occur late in the course of the disease after the local lesion has been treated
• Death occurs in the majority of untreated patients within 2 years

Diagnosis and Evaluation

UrologySchool.com Summary

• History and Physical exam (including exam of inguinal nodes)
• Laboratory (1): serum calcium
• Imaging (2):
  • Primary tumour
    • For small-volume glanular lesions, imaging studies are not needed
    • For larger lesions/lesions suspicious for invasion, US can provide information about infiltration of the corpora
  • Metastasis: if indicated (see below)
• Other (1): biopsy

History and Physical Exam

• History
  • Delay in seeking medical attention is common
  • Signs and Symptoms
    • Pain is uncommon
• Physical exam
  • Penile lesion
    • Size, location, fixation, and involvement of corporeal bodies
      • Lesions are most commonly on the glans (48%) and foreskin (21%)
      • Physical exam incorrectly establishes pathologic tumour stage in 26% of cases
  • Inguinal area
    • Careful palpation of the inguinal area for adenopathy is important
      • EAU Guidelines: Palpably enlarged lymph nodes are highly indicative of lymph node metastases. Physical examination should note the number of palpable nodes on each side and whether these are fixed or mobile. Additional imaging does not alter management and is not required

Laboratory

• Serum calcium
  • Hypercalcemia may occur without detectable osseous metastases from elevated PTH and related substances produced by tumour

Imaging

Primary tumour

• For small-volume glanular lesions, imaging studies are not needed
• For larger lesions/lesions suspicious for invasion, US can provide information about infiltration of the corpora
  • Penile Doppler US has been reported to have a higher staging accuracy than an MRI in detecting corporal infiltration
    • MRI with an artificially induced erection can be used to detect corporal invasion but is very unpleasant for the patient
    • CT has poor soft-tissue resolution and is not useful for imaging the extent of the primary tumour

Metastases

• Regional
  • Physical exam of the inguinal region remains the clinical gold standard for evaluating the presence of metastasis in the non-obese patients
    • EAU Guidelines: Imaging studies are not helpful in staging clinically normal inguinal regions; however, CT or MRI should also be performed in obese patients and those who have had prior inguinal surgery, whose physical examination findings may be unreliable
    • EAU Guidelines: A pelvic CT/PET scan can be used to assess the pelvic lymph nodes
    • Campbell's: some patients may have a challenging inguinal nodal examination because of body habitus or lymphedema from prior procedures. In these patients ultrasound can be used. The role of computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET)-CT, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is not well defined
• Distant
  • CT scan of the chest, abdomen, pelvis
  • Bone scan
  • CT/PET scan

Other

• Biopsy
  • Before initiation of therapy, biopsy is necessary to (4):
    1. Confirm the diagnosis of penile carcinoma
    2. Evaluate the depth of invasion
    3. Evaluate presence of vascular invasion
    4. Evaluate histologic grade
       • Squamous cell carcinomas are graded (1 to 4) using Broder classification
         • Low-grade lesions (grade 1 and 2) represent majority (70-80%) of cases at diagnosis
  • Risk factors for nodal metastases (5):
    1. High-grade disease
    2. Depth of invasion [pT stage]
    3. Sarcomatoid tumors
    4. Perineural invasion
    5. Vascular invasion

Differential diagnosis

1. Condyloma acuminatum (HPV warts)
2. Verrucous carcinoma (Buschke-Lowenstein tumour)
3. Lichen sclerosis
4. STI lesion: Chancre, chancroid, herpes, lymphogranuloma venereum, granuloma inguinale
5. Tuberculosis

Management

CIS

• Non-surgical
  • Topical
    • EAU: Circumcision is advisable prior to the use of topical agents
    • Options (2):
      1. 5-fluorouracil cream (5% concentration BID x 6 weeks)
      2. Imiquimod 5% cream
    • Patient adherence and strict follow-up is a must, and prompt re-biopsy is necessary for lesions that fail to respond
    • If topical treatment fails, it should not be repeated.
  • Ablation with lasers
    • Two commonly used laser mediums are carbon dioxide (CO2) and Nd:YAG; conflicting literature regarding their efficacy for cancerous lesions
• Surgical
  • Foreskin lesion
    • Circumcision or excision with a 5-mm margin is adequate
  • Glans lesion
    • Excisional strategies while maintaining normal penile anatomy
• Radiation
  • Can be used for tumours that are resistant to topical treatment, especially among patients who are not surgical candidates
• Moh's surgery

Favourable histologic features (stage Ta, T1; grade 1 and 2)

• Organ-sparing or glans-sparing surgical procedures
  • Goal is to preserve glans sensation and maximize shaft length
    • Options (5):
      1. Moh's surgery
      2. Laser ablation
      3. Radiation therapy
      4. Limited excision strategies
      5. Glansectomy
         • Moh's micrographic surgery
           • Least invasive of the organ-sparing approaches, with favourable functional outcomes
           • High recurrence rates have been reported during long-term follow-up.
           • Due to the low radicality of the procedure, Moh’s surgery has greater benefit for small superficial shaft lesions, but should not be used for large or high-risk tumours
         • Glansectomy
           • Most radical of the organ-sparing procedures
           • Has the highest local control rate
           • The glans is separated from the corporal heads and urethra transected with a distal urethrostomy constructed. The shaft skin can be advanced or split, or a full-thickness skin graft used.
    • Because recurrence rates are higher with organ-preserving strategies, compliance with follow-up is also a consideration in recommending organ preservation versus amputation

Indications for partial or total penectomy (3):

1. High grade (grade ≥ 3) lesions
2. [stage ≥ T2]; deep invasion into the glans urethra or corpora cavernosa
3. Tumours >4cm

Treatment of primary penile tumour summary

• Tis (glans): Laser therapy, glans resurfacing; alternative: topical therapy
• Ta, Tis (foreskin, shaft skin): Surgical excision to achieve negative margin; alternatives: laser therapy, topical therapy (Tis only)
• Ta, T1 grade 1-3
  • Glans: Therapy based on size and position of lesion as well as potential side effects, excision, glans resurfacing procedures, glansectomy, radiotherapy (not indicated for Ta)
  • Foreskin, shaft: Complete surgical excision to achieve negative margin
• T2 (glans) without gross cavernosum involvement: Total glansectomy with or without corpora cavernosa transection to achieve negative surgical margins, partial penectomy, radiotherapy
• T2 (corporeal invasion), T3: Partial or total penectomy
• T4 (adjacent structures): Consider neoadjuvant chemotherapy with surgical consolidation for responding patients if baseline resectability is a concern
• Local disease recurrence after conservative therapy: Complete surgical excision to achieve negative surgical margins; may require partial or total penectomy; select patients with superficial low-grade recurrences may be candidates for repeat penile-conserving procedure
• Radiotherapy: Select patients with T1-T2 tumors involving glans, coronal sulcus <4 cm

Treatment of inguinal nodes

• Lymph node involvement is most important prognostic factor for survival
  • 5-year survival: lymph node involvement vs. without: 73% vs. 60% (range 0-86% depending on extent of lymph node involvement)
• Clinically negative groins
  • ≈20% of patients with clinically nonpalpable inguinal nodes harbor occult metastases
  • Patients with stage ≥pT2 have high risk of metastasis, patients with pTis, pTa, pT1, grade 1 tumours have low risk of metastasis
    • Immediate resection of clinically occult lymph node metastases is associated with improved survival when compared with delayed resection of involved nodes at the time of clinical detection
  • Patients with high-risk disease (high-grade or ≥pT2) should undergo lymph node staging with either bilateral modified inguinal lymphadenectomy or dynamic sentinel node biopsy
    • Dynamic Sentinel Node Biopsy (DNSB)
      • Sentinel lymph node biopsy is the technique to remove nodes that are first affected by the spread of metastatic disease.
        • Objective is to reduce the false-negative rate of groin dissection
        • The theory is that certain cancers typically do not spread to other lymph nodes without the necessary and stepwise involvement of the sentinel node first.
        • The concept of orderly lymphatic progression of metastatic cells from the primary tumor to the sentinel node seems to be likely with regard to squamous cell carcinoma of the penis.
      • Techniques reported to increase the accuracy of DNSB include:
        1. Preoperative inguinal US with needle biopsy of any suspicious nodes
        2. Routine inguinal exploration even in the absence of radiotracer visualization
        3. Intraoperative palpation of the wound for abnormal nodes
        4. Extended pathologic analysis of any excised lymph nodes
      • Procedure
        • Inguinal ultrasound and fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology of suspect lymph nodes has been added as a preliminary step before lymphoscintigraphy. Patients with abnormal nodes on ultrasound undergo FNA, and only patients with negative FNA findings proceed to scintigraphy and DSNB.
          • Patients with positive FNA findings undergo IFLND.
        • DNSB involves preoperative lymphoscintigraphy using technetium-99m nanocolloid, preoperative patent blue dye injection, and intraoperative guidance with a gamma ray detection probe to visualize the individual drainage pattern and accurately identify the sentinel node
        • [Further details in Campbell’s]
        • Dedicated experience is needed to gain optimal results
          • Should be performed with the goal of a false-negative rate at ≤5%
      • Follow-up
        • Strict follow-up is necessary to identify recurrences that can be managed surgically and potentially salvaged.
        • It is important to stress that DSNB remains a diagnostic procedure, allowing some men to avoid a therapeutic IFLND.
          • Those with a positive DSNB should proceed to a full therapeutic lymphadenectomy. It is not appropriate for palpable lymphadenopathy and applies only to clinically negative nodes.
          • In patients with palpable lymphadenopathy
    • Inguinal staging procedure
      • Begins with a superficial node dissection which involves removal of nodes superficial to fascia lata.
        • In patients with no evidence of palpable adenopathy who are selected to undergo inguinal procedures by virtue of adverse prognostic factors within the primary tumor, the goal is to define whether metastases exist with minimal morbidity. The gold-standard for detecting microscopic metastases is the superficial inguinal node dissection
      • Complete ilionguinal lymph node dissection (removal of those nodes deep to the fascia lata contained within the femoral triangle as well as the pelvic nodes) is then performed if the superficial nodes are positive at surgery by frozen-section analysis.
        • Series have shown that in patients with negative superficial nodes, nodes deep to the fascia were always negative
        • Given morbidity of pelvic lymph node dissection, this can be spared in select patients with limited inguinal metastases
      • The superficial lymph node dissection should be bilateral
        • Lymph node dissection does not need to be bilateral if adenopathy is unilateral at recurrence (after treating primary tumour)
• Palpable adenopathy
  • Associated with metastasis in 43% of cases, secondary to inflammation in the remainder; can consider fine-needle aspiration to differentiate
  • Lymphadenectomy can be curative due to the prolonged locoregional phase before distant dissemination
  • Inguinal lymphadenectomy is still recommended
    • The superficial lymph node dissection should be bilateral even if adenopathy is unilateral at presentation
    • Complete ilionguinal lymph node dissection (removal of those nodes deep to the fascia lata contained within the femoral triangle as well as the pelvic nodes) is then performed if the superficial nodes are positive at surgery by frozen-section analysis.
  • Exception is verrucous carcinoma, also known as a Buschke-Lowenstein tumor
    • Unlike penile squamous cell carcinoma, verrucous carcinoma of the penis has a very low likelihood of metastasis.
    • Palpable adenopathy in the context of verrucous carcinoma is very likely to be reactive and should be initially observed. Biopsy should be reserved unless the node remains persistently enlarged or grows over time.
    • Lymphadenectomy in the context of verrucous carcinoma should be reserved for cases of biopsy-proven metastases.
• Fixed inguinal lymph nodes (cN3)
  • Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical inguinal lymphadenectomy in responders
• 2018 EAU Penile Cancer Guidelines: Summary of treatment strategies for nodal metastases

Lymph node status	Management
No palpable inguinal nodes (cN0)	Tis, Ta G1, T1G1: surveillance.
	> T1G2 [2019 NCCN guidelines: T1b or ≥T2]: invasive lymph node staging by either bilateral modified inguinal lymphadenectomy (the medial superficial inguinal lymph nodes and those from the central zone are removed bilaterally, leaving the greater saphenous vein untouched) or dynamic sentinel node biopsy
Palpable inguinal nodes (cN1/cN2)	Palpably enlarged groin lymph nodes should be surgically removed, pathologically assessed (by frozen section) and, if positive, a radical [bilateral?] inguinal lymphadenectomy should be performed
Fixed inguinal lymph nodes (cN3)	Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical inguinal lymphadenectomy in responders
Pelvic lymph nodes	Ipsilateral pelvic lymphadenectomy if ≥2 inguinal nodes are involved on one side or if extracapsular nodal metastasis (pN3) reported.
Adjuvant chemotherapy	In pN2/pN3 patients after radical lymphadenectomy
Radiotherapy	Not recommended for nodal disease except as a palliative option

• Pathologic criteria associated with improved long-term survival after attempted curative surgical resection of inguinal metastases include:
  1. Unilateral involvement
  2. Minimal nodal disease (≤2 involved nodes in most series (pN1))
  3. No evidence of extra nodal extension of cancer (pN3)
  4. Absence of pelvic nodal metastases (pN3)
     1. i.e. pN1, and lack of features associated with pN2 and pN3
• Indications for pelvic lymph node dissection in patients undergoing inguinal lymph node dissection for curative intent (no pelvic adenopathy):
  1. ≥2 positive inguinal lymph nodes
  2. Extra-nodal extension is present
     1. PLND in this setting serves as staging tool to identify patients who should be considered for adjunctive therapy
     2. PLND includes the distal common iliac, external iliac, and obturator groups of nodes.

Radiation

• An option for those with invasive SCC refusing surgical treatment
• May be delivered as brachytherapy with interstitial implant or external beam radiation
• Primary radiation therapy may be successfully applied to select patients with T1-2 tumours that are < 4cm; circumcision is necessary before
  • Brachytherapy more likely to preserve erectile function compared to EBRT
• Adverse effects: desquamation, meatal stenosis, and soft-tissue ulceration
• Salvage penectomy may be required for persistent or recurrent disease after radiation
• For patients undergoing primary radiotherapy, surgical management of inguinal lymph nodes should be recommended by the same criteria as for patients selected for surgical management of the primary tumour
  • Radiation to the inguinal area is not as effective as surgery for the treatment of inguinal nodes
• Prophylactic radiotherapy has not been shown to alter the natural history of inguinal metastases and is not recommended
• Palliative radiotherapy among patients with inoperable inguinal nodes may provide some benefit

Chemotherapy

• Treatment with a cisplatin-containing regimen in advanced metastatic penile cancer should be considered and this may facilitate curative resection. The optimal regimen has yet to be determined.
• Among patients whose tumour progresses through chemotherapy, surgery is not recommended

Non-squamous penile malignant neoplasms

• Extremely rare

Basal cell carcinoma

• Frequently encountered on other sun-exposed cutaneous surfaces, it is rare on the penis
• Treatment is by local excision, which is virtually always curative

Melanoma

• Aggressive form of cancer but can be cured if diagnosed and treated with the appropriate surgical treatment at an early stage
  • Surgery is the primary mode of treatment; radiation therapy and chemotherapy are of only adjunctive or palliative benefit

Sarcoma

• Prone to local recurrence; regional and distant metastases are rare.
• Superficial lesions can be treated with less radical procedures

Extramammary Paget Disease

• Appearance
  • Erythematous, eczematoid, well-demarcated area
  • Cannot be clinically distinguished from erythroplasia of Queyrat, Bowen disease, or carcinoma in situ of the penis
  • See Figure
• Clinical presentation
  • Local discomfort, pruritus, and occasionally a serosanguineous discharge involving the penis, the scrotum, or even the perianal area
• Behaves as a slow-growing intraepithelial adenocarcinoma
  • With time the cells may become invasive with dermal tumor deposits metastasizing to regional lymph nodes via dermal lymphatics penoscrotal
• May be associated with other malignancies of the genitourinary tract, such as prostate, bladder, and renal malignancies and should be evaluated for their presence
• Management
  • In most cases, only the skin and dermis must be resected with a gross margin of up to 3 cm. Positive margins may still occur, and frozen sections are recommended to guide the extent of resection.
    • Patients with a positive surgical margin are at a higher risk for recurrence, and additional resection is advised
  • Local skin or scrotal flaps can be used to cover the defects.
  • In a minority of cases the tumor may invade deeper structures, necessitating more extensive resection and reconstruction
  • If inguinal adenopathy is present, radical node dissection is advised but prognosis is poor

Metastases

• Most often represent spread from a clinically obvious existing primary tumor.
• Prognosis is poor, and therapy should be directed toward the primary tumor site histology and local palliation
• Priapism is the most frequently encountered sign of metastatic involvement of the penis

Lymphomatous infiltration of the penis is most likely secondary to diffuse disease

References

• Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA (eds): CAMPBELL-WALSH UROLOGY, ed 11. Philadelphia, Elsevier, 2015
• Brouwer, Oscar R., et al. "European association of urology-american society of clinical oncology collaborative guideline on penile cancer: 2023 update." European urology (2023).